200+ Cisco Interview Questions and Answers

The OSI Reference Model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven layers.

• The OSI Reference Model stands for Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model.

• It consists of seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.

• Each layer has specific functions and communicates with the adjacent layers.

• The model helps in understanding how different networking protocols work...read more

Memory protection in operating systems is a mechanism to prevent a process from accessing memory that has not been allocated to it.

• Memory protection prevents a process from accessing memory locations outside its allocated space.

• It helps in preventing one process from interfering with the memory of another process.

• Operating systems use techniques like virtual memory and access control lists to implement memory protection.

• Examples include segmentation fault in Unix systems when...read more

Code to reverse linked list using recursion

• Create a recursive function to traverse the linked list

• Swap the next and previous nodes in each recursive call

• Return the new head of the reversed linked list

OSI stack has 7 layers that define how data is transmitted over a network.

• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection

• Each layer has a specific function and communicates with adjacent layers

• Layers are: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application

Using stack to find the next greater element in an array

• Create an empty stack to store indices of elements

• Iterate through the array from right to left

• Pop elements from stack until a greater element is found or stack is empty

A multi user job scheduler allows multiple users to schedule and manage their tasks efficiently.

• Implement a centralized job scheduling system that can handle multiple users and their tasks simultaneously

• Include features such as task prioritization, deadline management, and resource allocation

• Use a database to store user information, task details, and scheduling algorithms

• Provide a user-friendly interface for users to create, edit, and monitor their scheduled tasks

To access x, use the following syntax: y.s3.s2.x

• Accessing x requires navigating through the nested structures

• Start with y, then access s3, followed by s2, and finally x

The tool commonly used for configuring routers is a command-line interface (CLI).

• Command-line interface (CLI) is the primary tool for configuring routers.

• CLI allows network engineers to enter commands to configure various settings on the router.

• Examples of CLI tools for router configuration include Cisco IOS CLI, Juniper Junos CLI, and Huawei VRP CLI.

When www.google.com is typed in a browser, the DNS server translates the domain name to an IP address to locate the website.

• DNS server translates domain name to IP address

• Browser sends request to DNS server to resolve domain name

• DNS server returns IP address of the website

• Browser then connects to the website using the IP address

IPv6 has a larger address space, improved security features, and better support for mobile devices compared to IPv4.

• IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses.

• IPv4 supports around 4.3 billion unique addresses, whereas IPv6 supports 340 undecillion unique addresses.

• IPv6 has built-in security features like IPsec, while IPv4 requires additional security protocols.

• IPv6 has better support for mobile devices and IoT devices due to its larger address space and impr...read more

Find the maximum element in a singly linked list.

• Traverse the list and keep track of the maximum element seen so far.

• Compare each element with the current maximum and update if necessary.

• Return the maximum element at the end of the traversal.

BST is a data structure used for efficient searching, insertion and deletion of elements in a sorted manner.

• BST stands for Binary Search Tree.

• It has a root node and every node has at most two children.

• The left subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys lesser than the node's key.

• The right subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys greater than the node's key.

• BST allows for efficient searching, insertion and deletion of elements in O(log n) time complexity.

• Example: S...read more

When typing www.google.com from a host computer, the request goes through the host, switch, router(s), and finally reaches the destination host.

• The host computer sends a DNS query to resolve the domain name www.google.com to an IP address.

• The switch forwards the DNS query to the router, which determines the next hop towards the destination.

• The router(s) route the request through various networks until it reaches the destination host, in this case, Google's servers.

• The respons...read more

Answering two programming questions related to printf() function and data types.

• In the first program, the output will be 'as hi is'.

• In the second program, the output will be '-1 255'.

• The first program uses printf() function to print three strings.

• The second program demonstrates type conversion from unsigned short to unsigned char.

• The value of -1 in unsigned short is converted to 255 in unsigned char.

Performance improvements in Angular can be achieved through lazy loading, AOT compilation, and optimizing change detection.

• Lazy loading: load modules only when needed

• AOT compilation: pre-compile templates for faster rendering

• Optimizing change detection: use OnPush strategy, avoid unnecessary bindings

• Use trackBy function for ngFor loops

• Use pure pipes instead of impure pipes

• Use ngZone.runOutsideAngular() for heavy computations

• Use Web Workers for parallel processing

• Minimize HTTP...read more

Rate limiter code implementation in Python

• Use a dictionary to store the timestamps of each request

• Check the dictionary to see if the request should be allowed based on the rate limit

• Update the dictionary with the current timestamp for each request

I have worked on Cisco tools such as Cisco Unified Communications Manager (CUCM) and Cisco Webex Teams.

• Cisco Unified Communications Manager (CUCM)

• Cisco Webex Teams

The program finds the number of ways to create 1 rupee using different coins.

• Use a recursive function to iterate through all possible combinations of coins

• Start with the largest coin and subtract its value from the target amount

• Repeat the process with the remaining coins until the target amount becomes zero

• Count the number of successful combinations

The output of the program is -1 255.

• The variable 'a' is assigned the value -1, which is equivalent to 65535 in unsigned short.

• When 'a' is converted to an unsigned char, it wraps around and becomes 255.

• The printf statement prints the values of 'a' and 'b'.

Certificates are digital documents used to verify the identity of a website or server in secure communication.

• Certificates are issued by a Certificate Authority (CA) to verify the identity of the website or server.

• TLS (Transport Layer Security) is a protocol that uses certificates to secure communication over the internet.

• Certificates contain information such as the public key of the website/server and the digital signature of the CA.

• When a user connects to a website, the web...read more

Count the number of elements repeating more than half the size of the array in a C program.

• Iterate through the array and count the frequency of each element using a hashmap.

• Check which elements have a frequency greater than size/2 and count them.

• Return the count of elements repeating more than half the size of the array.

During system boot, the BIOS performs Power-On Self Test (POST), loads the operating system, and initializes hardware components.

• BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) performs Power-On Self Test (POST) to check hardware components

• BIOS loads the bootloader from the boot device (e.g. hard drive, SSD)

• Bootloader loads the operating system kernel into memory

• Operating system initializes hardware components and starts system services

• User login prompt is displayed for user interaction

ARP is used to map a network address (such as an IP address) to a physical address (such as a MAC address).

• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol

• It is used to resolve IP addresses to MAC addresses

• There are two types of ARP: ARP Request and ARP Reply

• ARP Request is used to find the MAC address of a device with a known IP address

• ARP Reply is used to respond to an ARP Request with the MAC address of the device

• ARP is important for communication between devices on a network

I have experience working on full pipeline from code integration to deployment with security checks. Used Flask and other Python libraries for request and response handling.

• Used Git for version control and continuous integration tools like Jenkins for automated builds

• Utilized Docker for containerization and Kubernetes for orchestration

• Implemented security checks using tools like SonarQube and OWASP ZAP

• Used Flask for building RESTful APIs and handling HTTP requests and respons...read more

Use network automation tools like Ansible or Python scripts to quickly create multiple networks.

• Utilize network automation tools like Ansible or Python scripts

• Create templates for network configurations to speed up the process

• Use network virtualization technologies like VLANs or VXLANs to segment networks

• Leverage cloud-based network services for rapid deployment

• Consider using network automation platforms like Cisco DNA Center or Juniper Contrail

Yes

• Knowledge of network protocols and architectures

• Understanding of data structures and algorithms

• Experience with network troubleshooting and analysis

• Familiarity with network security and encryption

• Proficiency in network programming and socket programming

Thrashing in operating systems is a situation where the system is spending more time swapping data between memory and disk than actually executing tasks.

• Occurs when the system is overwhelmed with too many processes competing for limited resources

• Results in a decrease in overall system performance

• Can be alleviated by optimizing memory usage or adding more physical memory

• Example: A system with insufficient RAM running multiple memory-intensive applications

A static member in C++ is a member of a class that is shared among all instances of the class.

• Static members are declared using the 'static' keyword.

• They are not associated with any specific instance of the class, but rather with the class itself.

• They can be accessed using the scope resolution operator '::'.

• Static members are commonly used for constants, utility functions, or shared data among all instances of a class.

Return the element likely to come to a given position in a sorted array in O(n) time complexity.

• Iterate through the array and keep track of the frequency of each element using a hashmap.

• Find the element with the highest frequency and return it as the likely element at position P.

• Example: Array = ['apple', 'banana', 'apple', 'orange'], P = 2. Likely element at position 2 is 'apple'.

C++ supports polymorphism through virtual functions and inheritance.

• C++ supports polymorphism through virtual functions and inheritance

• Virtual functions allow a function to be overridden in a derived class

• Base class pointers can point to derived class objects, enabling polymorphic behavior

• Example: class Animal { virtual void makeSound() { cout << 'Animal sound'; } }; class Dog : public Animal { void makeSound() { cout << 'Bark'; } };

• Example: Animal* a = new Dog(); a->makeSoun...read more

I know various Linux commands for file management, process management, networking, and system administration.

• File management: ls, cd, cp, mv, rm, mkdir, touch

• Process management: ps, top, kill, nice, renice

• Networking: ping, traceroute, netstat, ifconfig, ssh

• System administration: sudo, apt-get, systemctl, journalctl, crontab

A microservice is a small, independent, and loosely coupled service that performs a specific business function.

• Microservices are designed to be small and focused on a single task or business function.

• They communicate with each other through APIs.

• Each microservice can be developed, deployed, and scaled independently.

• Examples include user authentication service, payment processing service, and notification service.

RIP and OSPF are routing protocols used in computer networks.

• RIP is a distance-vector protocol while OSPF is a link-state protocol.

• RIP uses hop count as the metric while OSPF uses cost.

• OSPF supports VLSM and CIDR while RIP does not.

• OSPF is more scalable and efficient for larger networks than RIP.

• RIP broadcasts its routing table updates while OSPF uses multicast.

• OSPF has a faster convergence time than RIP.

• RIP is simpler to configure and troubleshoot than OSPF.

Looping statements are used to execute a block of code repeatedly. Branching statements alter the flow of control in a program.

• Looping statements are used when we want to execute a block of code repeatedly until a certain condition is met.

• Examples of looping statements include for, while, and do-while loops.

• Branching statements are used to alter the normal flow of control in a program.

• Examples of branching statements include if-else statements, switch statements, and the brea...read more

Piping in Unix/Linux allows the output of one command to be used as the input for another command.

• Piping is done using the | symbol

• Multiple commands can be piped together

• Piping allows for the creation of complex command chains

• Example: ls -l | grep txt

Public IP is a unique address assigned to a device on the internet, while Private IP is used within a local network.

• Public IP is globally unique and can be accessed from anywhere on the internet.

• Private IP is used within a local network and is not accessible from the internet.

• Public IP is assigned by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) to identify a device on the internet.

• Private IP is assigned by a local network administrator to identify devices within the network.

• Public IP ...read more

Major procurement and customer related aspects include supplier management, cost control, quality assurance, and customer satisfaction.

• Supplier management involves selecting reliable suppliers, negotiating contracts, and maintaining relationships.

• Cost control focuses on reducing expenses through strategic sourcing, competitive bidding, and contract management.

• Quality assurance ensures that products and services meet specified standards and requirements.

• Customer satisfaction i...read more

HTTP headers are key-value pairs sent between the client and server to provide additional information about the request or response.

• HTTP headers consist of a key-value pair separated by a colon, with each pair separated by a new line

• Headers are used to provide information such as content type, content length, caching directives, authentication credentials, etc.

• Example: 'Content-Type: application/json'

Selecting the appropriate learning algorithm involves considering the problem's characteristics and requirements.

• Understand the problem's nature, such as classification, regression, clustering, etc.

• Consider the size of the dataset and the computational resources available.

• Evaluate the complexity of the relationships within the data.

• Experiment with different algorithms and compare their performance using metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, etc.

• Choose algorithms based on ...read more

This is a programming question involving preprocessor directives and printf function.

• The preprocessor directives #define a 3+3 and #define b 11-3 will be replaced by their respective values during compilation.

• The main function will print the result of a*b, which is equivalent to 6*8.

• Therefore, the output will be 48.

• The printf function will print the integer value of 48.

Components needed in a home networking system include modem, router, switch, access point, and network cables.

• Modem: connects to the internet service provider and converts the signal for use by the network.

• Router: directs network traffic between devices and manages the IP addresses.

• Switch: connects multiple devices within the network and allows them to communicate with each other.

• Access Point: provides wireless connectivity for devices to connect to the network.

• Network cables...read more

A static variable in C is a variable that retains its value between function calls.

• Static variables are declared using the 'static' keyword.

• They are initialized only once and retain their value throughout the program's execution.

• Static variables have a default value of 0 if not explicitly initialized.

• They are stored in the data segment of the program's memory.

• Example: static int count = 0; declares a static variable 'count' with an initial value of 0.

The OSI model has 7 layers that define how data is transmitted over a network.

• Layer 1: Physical - deals with the physical connection of devices

• Layer 2: Data Link - responsible for error-free transfer of data between devices

• Layer 3: Network - handles routing of data between different networks

• Layer 4: Transport - ensures reliable delivery of data between applications

• Layer 5: Session - establishes and manages connections between applications

• Layer 6: Presentation - translates dat...read more

Mutex is a locking mechanism to ensure exclusive access to a shared resource, while semaphore is a signaling mechanism to control access to a shared resource.

• Mutex allows only one thread to access the shared resource at a time, while semaphore can allow multiple threads to access the shared resource simultaneously.

• Mutex is binary, meaning it has only two states - locked and unlocked, while semaphore can have multiple states depending on the number of threads allowed to access...read more

The code snippet defines a macro called clrscr() and then calls it in the main function.

• The macro clrscr() is defined as 100, so when it is called, it will be replaced with 100.

• The printf statement will print the value returned by clrscr(), which is 100.

• The output of the code will be '100'.

To build a pipeline for a Machine learning project, you need to collect data, preprocess it, train the model, evaluate its performance, and deploy it.

• Collect relevant data from various sources

• Preprocess the data by cleaning, transforming, and normalizing it

• Split the data into training and testing sets

• Train the machine learning model using the training data

• Evaluate the model's performance using the testing data

• Fine-tune the model if necessary

• Deploy the model into production en...read more

DNS stands for Domain Name System, which translates domain names to IP addresses.

• DNS is like a phone book for the internet, translating human-readable domain names (like google.com) to IP addresses (like 172.217.3.206).

• It helps users access websites by typing in easy-to-remember domain names instead of complex IP addresses.

• DNS servers store records of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses, allowing for efficient and quick lookups.

• DNS also plays a role in email del...read more

The letters 'asbhiisn' will be printed in order.

• The printf() function will print the strings in the order they are called.

• Each printf() call will print the string without a newline character, so they will be printed together.

call, apply, and bind are methods in JavaScript used to manipulate the context of a function.

• call - calls a function with a given 'this' value and arguments provided individually.

• apply - calls a function with a given 'this' value and arguments provided as an array.

• bind - creates a new function that, when called, has its 'this' keyword set to the provided value.

Reverse a linked list and find all possible subsequences in a given array.

• To reverse a linked list, iterate through the list and change the next pointers of each node to the previous node.

• To find all possible subsequences in an array, use recursion and generate all possible combinations of elements.

• For example, given the array [1, 2, 3], the possible subsequences are [], [1], [2], [3], [1, 2], [1, 3], [2, 3], [1, 2, 3].

Catalyst 5000 uses shared memory LAN switching.

• Catalyst 5000 uses a shared memory architecture for LAN switching.

• This allows for high-speed switching between ports.

• The shared memory architecture also allows for advanced features like VLANs and QoS.

• Examples of Catalyst 5000 models include the 5500 and 5002.

• These switches were popular in the 1990s and early 2000s.

A namespace in C++ is a declarative region that provides a scope for the identifiers within it.

• Namespaces help in organizing code by grouping related classes, functions, and variables.

• They prevent naming conflicts by allowing the same name to be used in different namespaces.

• Example: namespace myNamespace { int x; }

• Example: using namespace std; // for using standard library functions without prefix

Sorting an array of strings and merging them into a single string

• Use a sorting algorithm like quicksort or mergesort to sort the array of strings

• After sorting, merge the sorted strings into a single string using a loop or built-in functions like join()

Regularly review and prioritize Jira issues, set clear deadlines, communicate with team members, and track progress.

• Regularly review and prioritize Jira issues to ensure they are not moved ahead without proper consideration.

• Set clear deadlines for each Jira issue to prevent unnecessary delays.

• Communicate effectively with team members to ensure everyone is on the same page regarding the status of Jira issues.

• Track progress regularly to identify any issues or bottlenecks that m...read more

Use a round-robin tournament scheduling algorithm with a matrix data structure.

• Create a matrix where rows represent teams and columns represent opponents.

• Fill in the matrix such that each team plays every other team exactly once.

• Use the round-robin tournament scheduling algorithm to generate the match schedule.

• Ensure that each team plays with every other team by checking the matrix for any missing matches.

Priority inversion is a scenario in scheduling where a lower priority task holds a resource needed by a higher priority task, causing the higher priority task to wait.

• Occurs when a low priority task locks a resource needed by a high priority task

• Results in the high priority task being blocked and unable to proceed

• Can lead to delays in critical tasks and impact system performance

• Commonly addressed through priority inheritance or priority ceiling protocols

When a user opens a browser and types in a URL and hits enter, the browser sends a request to the server hosting the website specified in the URL.

• Browser resolves the domain name to an IP address using DNS

• Browser sends a request to the server at that IP address

• Server processes the request and sends back the webpage content

• Browser renders the webpage for the user to view

Meta classes are classes that define the behavior of other classes.

• Meta classes are used to customize the behavior of classes.

• They can be used to add or modify attributes and methods of classes.

• They can also be used to enforce certain rules or restrictions on classes.

• In Python, the default meta class is 'type'.

• Example: class MyMeta(type): pass

A function to write a word to a particular sector.

• Create a function that takes a word and a sector as parameters

• Use the sector to determine the starting position in the array

• Write the word to the array starting from the specified sector

• Return the updated array

Bridges are used in the network layer of the OSI model.

• Bridges are used to connect two or more network segments or LANs.

• They operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

• Bridges use MAC addresses to forward data packets between segments.

• They can filter and forward network traffic based on MAC addresses.

• Examples of bridges include Ethernet bridges and wireless bridges.

The point where a Y shaped linked list disects is the node where the two branches merge into a single path.

• Traverse both branches of the Y shaped linked list and store the nodes in two separate lists.

• Compare the two lists to find the common node where they merge.

• The common node is the point where the Y shaped linked list disects.

Git is a version control system used for tracking changes in code. It allows collaboration and easy management of codebase.

• git init - initializes a new git repository

• git add - adds changes to the staging area

• git commit - commits changes to the repository

• git push - pushes changes to a remote repository

• git pull - pulls changes from a remote repository

• git branch - lists all branches in the repository

• git merge - merges changes from one branch to another

A C program to convert numbers into words, using an array of strings.

• Create an array of strings to store the words for each digit

• Use modulus and division to extract each digit from the number

• Use conditional statements to determine the appropriate word for each digit

• Combine the words for each digit to form the final output

Explanation of Spanning Tree Protocol and troubleshooting techniques for switching networks.

• Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is used to prevent loops in a network by blocking redundant paths.

• Troubleshooting STP involves checking for blocked ports, incorrect root bridge selection, and misconfigured priority values.

• Other common issues in switching networks include VLAN mismatches, port security violations, and broadcast storms.

• Tools such as packet captures, show commands, and netwo...read more

Stack and queue can be represented using linked list by maintaining pointers to the head and tail nodes.

• Create a Node structure with data and next pointer

• For stack, insert at the head and delete from the head

• For queue, insert at the tail and delete from the head

• Maintain pointers to the head and tail nodes for efficient insertion and deletion

Models in software engineering help in organizing and managing the development process. Extreme Programming is an agile methodology focused on continuous feedback and collaboration.

• Extreme Programming (XP) is an agile software development methodology.

• It emphasizes continuous feedback, frequent releases, and collaboration.

• XP involves practices such as pair programming, test-driven development, and continuous integration.

• The goal of XP is to deliver high-quality software that m...read more

Agile methodology helps change managers to adapt to changing requirements and deliver value faster.

• Agile principles can be applied to change management to increase flexibility and responsiveness.

• It allows for iterative and incremental changes, reducing the risk of failure.

• Agile promotes collaboration and communication between stakeholders, leading to better outcomes.

• It emphasizes continuous improvement and learning, enabling change managers to adapt to new challenges.

• Examples...read more

The code snippet demonstrates the use of the fork() function to create multiple child processes.

• The fork() function is used to create a new process by duplicating the existing process.

• Each time fork() is called, it creates a new child process that starts executing from the same point as the parent process.

• In the given code, fork() is called four times, resulting in a total of 16 processes (including the original parent process).

• The if(!ret) condition checks if the current pro...read more

Check code logic for limitations

• Review code for potential edge cases

• Test code with different inputs to identify any issues

• Consider scalability and performance implications of code

• Ensure error handling is robust and comprehensive

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol, used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses in a local network.

• ARP is used to find the MAC address of a device based on its IP address

• It operates at the data link layer of the OSI model

• ARP requests are broadcasted to all devices on the local network

• Example: When a device wants to communicate with another device on the same network, it uses ARP to find the MAC address of the destination device

Reverse a linked list

• Iteratively swap the next and previous pointers of each node

• Use three pointers to keep track of the current, previous, and next nodes

• Update the head pointer to the last node after reversing

Yes, some of the competitors of Cisco are Juniper Networks, Huawei, and Arista Networks.

• Juniper Networks is a networking equipment company that provides networking solutions to enterprises and service providers.

• Huawei is a Chinese multinational technology company that offers networking and telecommunications equipment and services.

• Arista Networks is a computer networking company that specializes in data center switches and cloud networking solutions.

Inventory turnover ratio formula is Cost of Goods Sold divided by Average Inventory.

• Inventory turnover ratio measures how quickly a company sells its inventory.

• It indicates the efficiency of a company's inventory management.

• A higher ratio is better as it means the company is selling its inventory quickly.

• Formula: Inventory turnover ratio = Cost of Goods Sold / Average Inventory

• Example: If a company has a COGS of $500,000 and an average inventory of $100,000, the inventory tur...read more

Currying is a technique in functional programming where a function with multiple arguments is transformed into a sequence of functions, each taking a single argument.

• Currying helps in creating reusable functions and improving code readability.

• It allows partial application of functions, where some arguments are fixed and others are left to be provided later.

• Example: const add = a => b => a + b; add(2)(3) will return 5.

IFRS stands for International Financial Reporting Standards, a set of accounting standards developed by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB).

• IFRS is used by companies across the globe to ensure consistency and transparency in financial reporting.

• Implementation of IFRS involves understanding the standards, making necessary adjustments to financial statements, and training staff on the new requirements.

• Companies may need to invest in new accounting software or hi...read more

Design a smart home system with defined network layer process

• Implement a central hub to control all smart devices in the home

• Utilize a secure network protocol like Zigbee or Z-Wave for communication between devices

• Segment the network to separate IoT devices from personal devices for security

• Use firewalls and encryption to protect data transmitted between devices

• Implement network monitoring tools to detect and prevent unauthorized access

Python is a high-level, interpreted programming language known for its simplicity and readability.

• Python is used for web development, data analysis, artificial intelligence, and more.

• It uses if statements for conditional execution of code.

• Example: if x > 5: print('x is greater than 5')

• Python also supports elif and else statements for more complex conditions.

A dictionary is a collection of key-value pairs in Python.

• Keys must be unique and immutable.

• Values can be of any data type.

• Dictionaries are mutable and can be modified.

• Access values using keys.

• Use the 'in' keyword to check if a key exists in the dictionary.

Explanation of pre order, in order and post order traversal with examples.

• Pre order: Root, Left, Right. Example: +AB*CD (prefix notation)

• In order: Left, Root, Right. Example: A+B*C-D/E (infix notation)

• Post order: Left, Right, Root. Example: ABC*+D- (postfix notation)

Routers connect different networks, while switches connect devices within a network.

• Routers operate at the network layer and make decisions based on IP addresses

• Switches operate at the data link layer and use MAC addresses to forward data

• Routers can connect multiple networks together, while switches connect devices within the same network

• Example: A router connects a home network to the internet, while a switch connects devices within the home network

Rate limiter design to control the rate of requests to a system

• Implement a token bucket algorithm to limit the number of requests per unit of time

• Use a sliding window algorithm to track and limit the number of requests within a specific time frame

• Consider using a distributed rate limiter for scalability and reliability

Encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism

• Encapsulation - bundling data and methods together to restrict access

• Inheritance - allows a class to inherit properties and methods from another class

• Polymorphism - ability for objects to be treated as instances of their parent class

Performance of a model can be measured using various metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score, ROC curve, and confusion matrix.

• Use accuracy to measure the overall correctness of the model's predictions.

• Precision measures the proportion of true positive predictions out of all positive predictions.

• Recall measures the proportion of true positive predictions out of all actual positives.

• F1 score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall, providing a balance between...read more

A NAT router is a device that allows multiple devices on a local network to share a single public IP address for internet access.

• NAT stands for Network Address Translation, which allows private IP addresses to be translated to a public IP address for communication over the internet.

• NAT routers provide an added layer of security by hiding the internal IP addresses of devices on the network from external sources.

• NAT routers can also help conserve public IP addresses by allowing...read more

A macro to set the nth bit.

• Use bitwise OR operator to set the nth bit to 1.

• Use left shift operator to move 1 to the nth position.

• Use bitwise AND operator to clear the nth bit if needed.

CUPS was introduced in Release-14 to provide a common printing system for Unix-like operating systems.

• CUPS stands for Common Unix Printing System.

• It was introduced to replace the traditional Unix printing system LPD.

• CUPS provides a modular and extensible printing system that can support a variety of printers and print job formats.

• It also includes a web-based administration interface for managing printers and print jobs.

• CUPS has become the de facto standard printing system for...read more

Inserting a node in a single linked list

• Create a new node with the given data

• Set the next pointer of the new node to the current head

• Set the head pointer to the new node

Program to convert 24hr input into AM-PM formatted output

• Create a function that takes a 24-hour time input as a string

• Use the datetime module in Python to convert the input to a datetime object

• Format the datetime object to display in AM-PM format

• Return the formatted time as a string

Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services over the internet.

• Cloud computing allows users to access and use computing resources on-demand.

• Types of cloud computing include public, private, and hybrid clouds.

• Public clouds are owned and operated by third-party providers, like Amazon Web Services (AWS) or Microsoft Azure.

• Private clouds are dedicated to a single organization and can be located on-premises or hosted by a third-party provider.

• Hybrid clouds combine public ...read more