Top 250 Pharmacology Interview Questions and Answers

Tramadol is a Schedule H1 drug used for pain management.

• Tramadol is a synthetic opioid analgesic used to treat moderate to severe pain.

• It is classified as a Schedule H1 drug in India, meaning it requires a prescription for purchase.

• Tramadol works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain to reduce the perception of pain.

• Common brand names for Tramadol include Ultram, ConZip, and Ryzolt.

Different drugs have different storage temperature requirements.

• Some drugs need to be stored at room temperature (around 20-25°C)

• Others need to be refrigerated (2-8°C)

• Some require freezing (-20°C or lower)

• Certain drugs may have specific storage requirements, such as protection from light or humidity

• It is important to follow the storage instructions on the drug label or packaging

• Examples: Insulin should be refrigerated, while nitroglycerin tablets should be stored at room temp...read more

ADR stands for Adverse Drug Reaction, while AE stands for Adverse Event. ADR specifically refers to reactions caused by drugs.

• ADR is a reaction caused by a drug, while AE is a broader term that includes any unexpected or harmful reaction.

• ADR is specifically related to drugs, while AE can include reactions to other factors such as medical devices or procedures.

• Example: A patient experiencing nausea after taking a prescribed medication would be considered an ADR, while a patien...read more

OOS stands for Out of Specification and OOT stands for Out of Trend.

• OOS refers to a result that falls outside the acceptance criteria specified in the test procedure.

• OOT refers to a result that shows a trend outside the expected range over time.

• Both OOS and OOT results may indicate potential issues with the quality or consistency of the product being tested.

Antimicrobial drugs are medications used to treat infections caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, or parasites.

• Antimicrobial drugs target specific components of microorganisms to inhibit their growth or kill them.

• Examples include antibiotics (e.g. penicillin), antifungals (e.g. fluconazole), antivirals (e.g. acyclovir), and antiparasitics (e.g. metronidazole).

• Mechanisms of action include disrupting cell wall synthesis, inhibiting protein synthesis, interfering with DNA replica...read more

Cefixime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic that works by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis.

• Cefixime inhibits the final transpeptidation step of peptidoglycan synthesis in bacterial cell walls.

• It is effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

• Cefixime is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and sexually transmitted infections.

• It is usually administered orally ...read more

LD50 is the dose of a substance that is lethal to 50% of the test population, while ED50 is the dose that produces a therapeutic effect in 50% of the population.

• LD50 is used to measure the toxicity of a substance

• ED50 is used to measure the effectiveness of a drug

• LD50 is determined through animal testing

• ED50 is determined through clinical trials

• LD50 is expressed in milligrams per kilogram of body weight

• ED50 is expressed in milligrams per kilogram of body weight

• LD50 is used to ...read more

Instruments of pharmacology should be handled with care and proper knowledge.

• Instruments should be cleaned and sterilized before and after use.

• Proper training and knowledge should be acquired before handling any instrument.

• Instruments should be stored in a safe and secure place.

• Regular maintenance and calibration of instruments is necessary.

• Examples of instruments include syringes, needles, pipettes, and microscopes.

Drugs commonly used for rheumatoid arthritis include methotrexate, hydroxychloroquine, and biologic agents like adalimumab and etanercept.

• Methotrexate is often considered the first-line treatment for rheumatoid arthritis

• Hydroxychloroquine is used in combination with other medications

• Biologic agents like adalimumab and etanercept target specific components of the immune system

Antibiotics used for GNB include ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, and meropenem.

• Ciprofloxacin

• Levofloxacin

• Meropenem

S1, S2, and S3 in dissolution test refer to the stages of the test where different parameters are measured.

• S1 is the stage where the sample is introduced into the dissolution medium.

• S2 is the stage where the dissolution process takes place and the drug is released from the dosage form.

• S3 is the stage where the concentration of the drug in the dissolution medium is measured over time.

• These stages help in determining the rate and extent of drug release from the dosage form.

OTC drugs are medications that can be purchased without a prescription from a healthcare professional.

• OTC drugs are typically used to treat minor ailments and symptoms

• They are available in pharmacies, grocery stores, and online

• Examples include pain relievers like ibuprofen, allergy medications like loratadine, and cold remedies like cough syrup

Various types of injections are used in chemotherapy depending on the type of cancer and its stage.

• Chemotherapy injections can be given intravenously (into a vein), intramuscularly (into a muscle), or subcutaneously (under the skin).

• Common chemotherapy drugs administered through injections include cisplatin, doxorubicin, and paclitaxel.

• Injections are usually given in a hospital or clinic setting by a trained healthcare professional.

• The type and frequency of injections depend ...read more

I have a good understanding of drug and food interactions and their impact on nutrition.

• I am aware of how certain foods can affect the absorption and effectiveness of medications.

• I understand the importance of timing medication and meals appropriately.

• I am knowledgeable about common food-drug interactions, such as grapefruit juice and statins.

• I am familiar with the potential side effects of certain medications on appetite and nutrient absorption.

• I am able to provide guidance ...read more

One example of a hypertensive drug is Lisinopril.

• Lisinopril is an ACE inhibitor commonly used to treat high blood pressure.

• Other examples include Amlodipine, Losartan, and Hydrochlorothiazide.

Three types of antacids are proton pump inhibitors, H2 blockers, and antacids.

• Proton pump inhibitors reduce acid production in the stomach.

• H2 blockers block histamine receptors in the stomach to reduce acid production.

• Antacids neutralize stomach acid and provide quick relief from heartburn.

• Examples of antacids include Tums, Rolaids, and Maalox.

There are several drugs used in the treatment of high blood pressure (BP).

• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors

• Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)

• Beta blockers

• Calcium channel blockers

• Diuretics

• Alpha blockers

• Alpha-2 receptor agonists

• Renin inhibitors

Balance crystalloid solutions are intravenous fluids used to restore and maintain electrolyte balance in the body.

• Balance crystalloid solutions are commonly used in medical settings, such as hospitals and clinics.

• They are administered intravenously to replenish fluid and electrolyte levels in the body.

• These solutions contain a balanced combination of electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride.

• They help restore and maintain the body's pH balance and osmotic pressure...read more

Cancer drugs work by targeting specific molecules or pathways involved in the growth and spread of cancer cells.

• Cancer drugs can inhibit the growth of cancer cells by interfering with their DNA replication or protein synthesis.

• Some drugs target specific molecules on the surface of cancer cells, blocking signals that promote their growth.

• Other drugs can stimulate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells.

• Chemotherapy drugs work by killing rapidly dividing cells, i...read more

Patent drugs are exclusive to the original manufacturer while generic drugs are copies of the original drug.

• Patent drugs are developed by pharmaceutical companies and are exclusive to them for a certain period of time.

• Generic drugs are copies of the original drug and can be produced by any company once the patent has expired.

• Patent drugs are usually more expensive than generic drugs.

• Generic drugs must have the same active ingredient, strength, dosage form, and route of admini...read more

There are various types of painkillers available, including opioids, NSAIDs, acetaminophen, corticosteroids, and antidepressants.

• Opioids: strong painkillers that work by blocking pain signals to the brain. Examples include morphine, codeine, and oxycodone.

• NSAIDs: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that reduce pain and inflammation. Examples include ibuprofen, aspirin, and naproxen.

• Acetaminophen: a pain reliever that is not an NSAID or opioid. It is often used for mild to mo...read more

Inj. Adenosine 1ml=6mg

• Adenosine 1ml injection contains 6mg of Adenosine

• Dosage may vary depending on the patient's condition

• Adenosine is commonly used in cardiac stress tests

Painkillers work by blocking pain signals in the brain and can have various effects on the body.

• Painkillers can reduce inflammation and relieve pain.

• They can also cause side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, and upset stomach.

• Different types of painkillers work in different ways, such as acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and opioids.

• Overuse of painkillers can lead to dependence and other health issues.

Pharmacokinetics is the study of how drugs move through the body, while pharmacodynamics is the study of the effects of drugs on the body.

• Pharmacokinetics involves absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs in the body.

• Pharmacodynamics focuses on the interactions between drugs and their target receptors to produce a therapeutic effect.

• Understanding pharmacokinetics helps determine the appropriate dosage and dosing intervals for a drug.

• Understanding pharmacod...read more

Scheduled drugs are substances regulated by the government due to their potential for abuse or addiction.

• Scheduled drugs are classified into five categories or schedules based on their potential for abuse and medical use.

• Schedule I drugs have no accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse, while Schedule V drugs have a low potential for abuse and accepted medical use.

• Examples of scheduled drugs include opioids like oxycodone and fentanyl, stimulants like Adderall and ...read more

Antidiabetic drugs are classified into different categories based on their mechanism of action.

• Classification based on mechanism of action: insulin, sulfonylureas, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT-2 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonists, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, meglitinides

• Insulin: used to replace or supplement the body's insulin production

• Sulfonylureas: stimulate the pancreas to release more insulin

• Biguanides: decrease glucose production in the live...read more

Sucralfate works by forming a protective barrier over ulcers and erosions in the stomach and intestines.

• Binds to damaged tissue to create a protective barrier

• Stimulates prostaglandin and epidermal growth factor production to promote healing

• Does not get absorbed into the bloodstream, minimizing systemic side effects

Off-label drug refers to the use of a medication for a purpose other than what it is approved for by regulatory agencies.

• Off-label drug use is legal but not regulated by the FDA

• It is often used to treat conditions not listed on the label

• Doctors may prescribe off-label drugs based on their clinical judgment

• Examples include using antidepressants for pain relief or cancer drugs for autoimmune diseases

Vitamin K2-7 activates proteins that help transport calcium from arteries to bones and teeth.

• Vitamin K2-7 activates osteocalcin, a protein that binds calcium and helps deposit it in bones and teeth.

• It also activates matrix Gla protein, which helps prevent calcium buildup in arteries.

• Vitamin K2-7 is important for bone and cardiovascular health.

• It is found in fermented foods like natto, cheese, and sauerkraut.

• Supplements are also available.

Immunosuppressive drugs are medications that suppress or reduce the strength of the body's immune system.

• Used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs

• Treat autoimmune diseases

• Common examples include corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, and antimetabolites

Antibiotic prophylaxis is the use of antibiotics to prevent infections before they occur.

• Administering antibiotics before surgery to prevent surgical site infections

• Giving antibiotics to prevent bacterial endocarditis before dental procedures

• Using antibiotics to prevent infections in immunocompromised patients

• Antibiotic prophylaxis should be used judiciously to prevent antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic policy refers to a set of guidelines and protocols for the appropriate use of antibiotics in healthcare settings.

• Antibiotic policy aims to promote the rational use of antibiotics to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

• It includes guidelines for prescribing antibiotics, monitoring their use, and preventing the spread of antibiotic-resistant infections.

• Examples of antibiotic policies include antibiotic stewardship programs in hospitals and guidelines for...read more

Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their effects on the body. It involves the study of drug action, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination.

• Pharmacology helps in understanding the mechanism of action of drugs and their effects on the body.

• It helps in selecting the appropriate drug for a particular disease based on its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

• Pharmacology also helps in understanding the adverse effects of drugs and how to manage them.

• Clinical ph...read more

Training efficacy refers to the effectiveness of a training program in achieving its intended goals.

• Training efficacy is measured by evaluating the extent to which the training program has improved the knowledge, skills, and performance of the trainees.

• Factors that can affect training efficacy include the design of the training program, the qualifications of the trainers, and the motivation and engagement of the trainees.

• Examples of methods used to measure training efficacy i...read more

Beta blockers are medications that block the effects of adrenaline on the body.

• Used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and angina

• Also used to prevent migraines and stage fright

• Examples include metoprolol, propranolol, and atenolol

Anti-infection drugs are medications used to treat bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections.

• Anti-infection drugs target specific types of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.

• They work by either killing the pathogens or inhibiting their growth and reproduction.

• Examples include antibiotics for bacterial infections, antivirals for viral infections, antifungals for fungal infections, and antiparasitic drugs for parasitic infections.

ADME refers to the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs or substances in the body.

• Absorption: the process of a substance entering the bloodstream through the digestive tract or skin

• Distribution: the movement of a substance throughout the body via the bloodstream

• Metabolism: the process of a substance being broken down by enzymes in the body

• Excretion: the removal of a substance from the body through urine, feces, or sweat

• ADME is important in...read more

Antacid drugs are medications that help neutralize stomach acid to relieve symptoms of indigestion, heartburn, and acid reflux.

• Antacid drugs work by increasing the pH level in the stomach, reducing acidity.

• They can provide quick relief from symptoms like heartburn, indigestion, and sour stomach.

• Common ingredients in antacid drugs include aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate.

• Antacid drugs are available in various forms such as tabl...read more

Haloperidol is a type of drug known as a typical antipsychotic, used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.

• Haloperidol is classified as a typical antipsychotic medication

• It is commonly used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders

• Haloperidol works by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain

• It can also be used to manage symptoms of Tourette syndrome and severe behavioral problems in children

Anticoagulation can be calculated using the patient's weight, target activated clotting time (ACT), and heparin dose.

• Calculate initial heparin dose based on weight (ex. 80 units/kg)

• Monitor ACT and adjust heparin dose to maintain target range (ex. 150-180 seconds)

• Consider other factors like liver function, concurrent medications, and bleeding risk

Tricaine MPS works as an effective antiflatulent by reducing gas in the gastrointestinal tract.

• Tricaine MPS contains simethicone, which helps break down gas bubbles in the stomach and intestines.

• It works by altering the surface tension of gas bubbles, allowing them to combine and be expelled more easily.

• Tricaine MPS can provide relief from symptoms of bloating, gas, and discomfort caused by excess gas.

• It is commonly used to treat conditions like indigestion, heartburn, and ir...read more

Anthelminthic drugs are used to treat infections caused by parasitic worms in the body.

• Treat infections caused by parasitic worms

• Can be used to treat conditions like roundworm, hookworm, and tapeworm infections

• Help eliminate the worms from the body

High alert drugs are medications that have a high risk of causing significant patient harm if used incorrectly.

• High alert drugs require special precautions in prescribing, dispensing, and administration.

• Examples include opioids, chemotherapy agents, anticoagulants, and insulin.

• Healthcare providers must be extra vigilant when handling high alert drugs to prevent medication errors.

Pharmacology classifications categorize drugs based on their mechanism of action, therapeutic use, and chemical structure.

• Pharmacological classifications categorize drugs based on their mechanism of action

• Therapeutic classifications group drugs based on their primary use or indication

• Chemical classifications categorize drugs based on their chemical structure

• Examples include beta-blockers (mechanism of action), antibiotics (therapeutic use), and benzodiazepines (chemical struc...read more

Indian Pharmacopeia is an official compendium of standards for drugs and pharmaceuticals in India.

• It sets standards for the quality, purity, strength, and packaging of drugs in India.

• It ensures the safety and efficacy of pharmaceutical products available in the market.

• The latest edition is Indian Pharmacopeia 2018.

• It is published by the Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC).

Domperidone is used to treat nausea and vomiting, as well as to help with gastric motility.

• Treats nausea and vomiting

• Helps with gastric motility

• Used in conditions like gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and gastroparesis

High risk medications are drugs that have a higher likelihood of causing harm or adverse effects to patients.

• High risk medications are typically those with a narrow therapeutic index, meaning the difference between a therapeutic dose and a toxic dose is small.

• Medications that require close monitoring and dose adjustments fall under high risk category.

• Examples of high risk medications include anticoagulants, chemotherapy drugs, opioids, and insulin.

Drug management involves overseeing the entire lifecycle of a drug, from development to post-market surveillance.

• Involves monitoring the safety and efficacy of drugs

• Includes regulatory compliance and reporting

• Ensures proper distribution and storage of drugs

• Involves pharmacovigilance activities to monitor and assess adverse drug reactions

A suspect drug is a medication that is under suspicion for causing harmful effects or not being effective.

• A suspect drug may have reports of adverse reactions from patients or healthcare providers.

• It may be subject to further investigation by regulatory authorities.

• Examples include Vioxx, which was withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns, and Thalidomide, which caused birth defects.

A drug solution is a liquid preparation containing one or more active pharmaceutical ingredients dissolved in a solvent.

• Drug solutions are commonly used for oral medications, injections, and topical applications.

• They are easier to swallow and absorb compared to solid dosage forms.

• Examples include cough syrups, eye drops, and intravenous infusions.

Anti-inflammatory drugs are medications that reduce inflammation in the body, helping to alleviate pain and swelling.

• Examples include ibuprofen, aspirin, naproxen, and corticosteroids.

• These drugs are commonly used to treat conditions such as arthritis, tendonitis, and bursitis.

• They work by blocking the enzymes that cause inflammation in the body.

Antidepressants are medications used to treat depression and other mood disorders by altering the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain.

• Antidepressants work by balancing chemicals in the brain that affect mood and emotions.

• Common types of antidepressants include SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors), SNRIs (Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors), TCAs (Tricyclic Antidepressants), and MAOIs (Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors).

• Examples of common antidepressan...read more

Chemotherapy drugs are medications used to treat cancer by killing cancer cells or stopping their growth.

• Doxorubicin

• Cyclophosphamide

• Paclitaxel

• 5-Fluorouracil

• Methotrexate

Drugs are substances used to treat, cure, or prevent diseases and medical conditions.

• Drugs can be prescribed or over-the-counter

• They can have various forms such as tablets, capsules, injections, creams, etc.

• Drugs can have side effects and interactions with other drugs

• They can be classified into different categories such as antibiotics, analgesics, antihypertensives, etc.

• Drug development involves several stages including preclinical testing, clinical trials, and FDA approval

Atenolol is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, chest pain, and heart failure.

• Atenolol is a beta-blocker medication

• It works by blocking the action of certain natural chemicals in the body, such as adrenaline

• It is commonly prescribed to treat conditions like hypertension, angina, and arrhythmias

• Atenolol can help reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes

Ramipril is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and to improve survival after a heart attack.

• Belongs to the class of medications called ACE inhibitors

• Helps to relax blood vessels, making it easier for the heart to pump blood

• Used to lower blood pressure and reduce the workload on the heart

• Can also be prescribed to prevent heart attacks, strokes, and kidney problems

Routes of medicine administration include oral, topical, inhalation, injection, and rectal.

• Oral - medication taken by mouth

• Topical - medication applied to the skin

• Inhalation - medication inhaled into the lungs

• Injection - medication administered through a needle into the body

• Rectal - medication inserted into the rectum

• Examples: Oral - tablets, capsules; Topical - creams, ointments; Inhalation - inhalers; Injection - intramuscular, intravenous; Rectal - suppositories

Antiemetic drugs are medications used to prevent or treat nausea and vomiting.

• Antiemetic drugs work by blocking certain receptors in the brain and gastrointestinal tract

• Common antiemetic drugs include ondansetron, promethazine, and metoclopramide

• They are often used in chemotherapy, post-operative recovery, and motion sickness

Antimicrobial agents are substances that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.

• Antimicrobial agents can be classified into antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics.

• Examples of antimicrobial agents include penicillin (antibiotic), acyclovir (antiviral), fluconazole (antifungal), and ivermectin (antiparasitic).

• They are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms.

• Antimicrobial resistance is a gro...read more

Drug distribution refers to the process of getting medications from the manufacturer to the end user.

• It involves various steps such as procurement, storage, transportation, and dispensing of drugs.

• Drug distribution can be done through various channels such as pharmacies, hospitals, clinics, and online pharmacies.

• Efficient drug distribution is crucial for ensuring timely access to medications and preventing drug shortages.

• Examples of drug distribution systems include the whole...read more

Side effects are known and expected reactions to a medication, while adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are unexpected and harmful reactions.

• Side effects are predictable and often listed on the medication's label or information sheet

• ADRs are unexpected and can range from mild to severe

• Examples of side effects include drowsiness from antihistamines, while an ADR could be a severe allergic reaction to a medication

Drugs used in treatment of heart disease, diabetes etc.

• Heart disease drugs include statins, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, and calcium channel blockers

• Diabetes drugs include metformin, sulfonylureas, DPP-4 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists

• Other drugs used in treatment of related conditions include anticoagulants, antiplatelets, and diuretics

• Treatment plans vary depending on the individual's condition and medical history

Chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine used to relieve symptoms of allergies, hay fever, and the common cold.

• Relieves symptoms of allergies, hay fever, and the common cold

• Blocks the action of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic symptoms

• May cause drowsiness and should not be used with alcohol or other sedatives

• Available in tablet, capsule, and liquid form

• May also be used to treat itching and hives

Clinical phases refer to the stages of clinical trials that test the safety and effectiveness of new medical treatments.

• There are typically three phases of clinical trials

• Phase 1 tests the safety of the treatment on a small group of people

• Phase 2 tests the effectiveness of the treatment on a larger group of people

• Phase 3 tests the effectiveness and safety of the treatment on an even larger group of people

• Clinical phases are important for determining whether a new treatment is...read more

Chlorpheniramine can cause adverse reactions such as drowsiness, dry mouth, blurred vision, and constipation.

• Common side effects include dizziness, headache, nausea, and loss of appetite.

• Rare but serious side effects include seizures, irregular heartbeat, and difficulty breathing.

• Chlorpheniramine should not be taken with alcohol or other sedatives as it can increase drowsiness.

• Patients with glaucoma, enlarged prostate, or thyroid problems should use caution when taking chlorp...read more

Side effects of TB drugs include nausea, vomiting, liver damage, and vision problems.

• Nausea and vomiting are common side effects

• Liver damage can occur with certain drugs

• Vision problems such as color blindness or blurred vision may occur

• Other side effects include rash, fever, and joint pain

• Patients should be monitored closely for any adverse reactions

Anti-TB drugs are used to treat tuberculosis by killing the bacteria causing the infection.

• Isoniazid

• Rifampin

• Pyrazinamide

• Ethambutol

• Streptomycin

Antihypertensives are medications used to treat high blood pressure by lowering blood pressure levels.

• ACE inhibitors (e.g. Lisinopril)

• Beta blockers (e.g. Metoprolol)

• Calcium channel blockers (e.g. Amlodipine)

• Diuretics (e.g. Hydrochlorothiazide)

• Angiotensin II receptor blockers (e.g. Losartan)

Analgesics relieve pain while antipyretics reduce fever.

• Analgesics are painkillers that work by blocking pain signals to the brain.

• Antipyretics are fever reducers that work by lowering the body's temperature.

• Some drugs can have both analgesic and antipyretic effects, such as aspirin and ibuprofen.

• It is important to use these drugs as directed and not exceed the recommended dosage.

Some drugs related to cardiovascular disorders are aspirin, nitroglycerin, and statins.

• Aspirin is used to prevent blood clots and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke.

• Nitroglycerin is used to treat angina (chest pain) by relaxing blood vessels and increasing blood flow to the heart.

• Statins are used to lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke.

Antimalarial agents are drugs used to treat or prevent malaria.

• Chloroquine

• Mefloquine

• Quinine

• Artemisinin

• Atovaquone-proguanil

• Doxycycline

• Primaquine

Oral hypoglycemic agents are drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes by lowering blood sugar levels.

• Sulfonylureas - stimulate insulin secretion (e.g. glipizide)

• Biguanides - decrease glucose production in liver (e.g. metformin)

• Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors - slow carbohydrate absorption (e.g. acarbose)

• Thiazolidinediones - increase insulin sensitivity (e.g. pioglitazone)

• Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors - increase insulin secretion and decrease glucagon secretion (e.g. sitagliptin)

• S...read more

Bioequivalence/bioavailability studies compare the pharmacokinetics of two formulations of a drug.

• Bioequivalence studies compare the rate and extent of absorption of a test drug to a reference drug

• Bioavailability studies measure the amount of a drug that enters the bloodstream and the rate at which it does so

• These studies are important for ensuring that generic drugs are equivalent to their brand-name counterparts

• They can also be used to compare different formulations of the ...read more

Sodium channel blockers work by inhibiting the flow of sodium ions into cells, which reduces nerve and muscle activity.

• Sodium channel blockers are a type of medication used to treat various conditions such as epilepsy, arrhythmias, and neuropathic pain.

• They work by binding to sodium channels in cell membranes, preventing the influx of sodium ions.

• This reduces the excitability of nerve and muscle cells, leading to a decrease in activity.

• Examples of sodium channel blockers incl...read more

There are several classes of medicines including antibiotics, analgesics, antihistamines, and antidepressants.

• Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections

• Analgesics are used to relieve pain

• Antihistamines are used to treat allergies

• Antidepressants are used to treat depression and anxiety

• Other classes include antipsychotics, anticonvulsants, and diuretics

Posology is the study of dosage and administration of drugs. Galles is not a medical term.

• Posology involves determining the appropriate dose, frequency, and duration of medication for a patient.

• It takes into account factors such as age, weight, and medical history.

• For example, a child may require a lower dose of medication than an adult due to their smaller size.

• Galles is not a medical term and has no definition in the context of healthcare.

Non narcotic drugs are medications that do not have addictive properties and do not produce a high.

• Non narcotic drugs are used to treat pain, inflammation, and fever.

• Examples of non narcotic drugs include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and aspirin.

• Non narcotic drugs are generally considered safer than narcotic drugs and have fewer side effects.

• Non narcotic drugs are available over-the-counter or by prescription.

• Non narcotic drugs are also known as non-opioid drugs.

Macrolides are a class of antibiotics that inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit.

• Macrolides are commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and sexually transmitted infections.

• Examples of macrolides include azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin.

• They are bacteriostatic, meaning they inhibit bacterial growth rather than killing the bacteria.

Prokinetics are medications that enhance gastrointestinal motility and help improve the movement of food through the digestive system.

• Prokinetics are commonly used to treat conditions like gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), gastroparesis, and functional dyspepsia.

• They work by stimulating the muscles in the gastrointestinal tract to contract more frequently and efficiently.

• Examples of prokinetic medications include metoclopramide, domperidone, and erythromycin.

• These medic...read more

A capsule is a solid dosage form in which the drug is enclosed in a hard or soft soluble container.

• Capsules can be classified into two main types: hard capsules and soft capsules.

• Hard capsules are made of two pieces that fit together, typically made of gelatin.

• Soft capsules are made of a single piece, usually containing a liquid or semi-solid drug formulation.

• Examples of hard capsules include Tylenol capsules, while examples of soft capsules include fish oil capsules.

Parenteral refers to a route of administration that does not involve the digestive tract.

• Parenteral administration bypasses the digestive system and delivers medication directly into the bloodstream.

• Common parenteral routes include intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous injections.

• Parenteral administration is often used for medications that cannot be taken orally or need to be quickly absorbed.

• Examples of parenteral medications include vaccines, insulin, and certain ant...read more

OTC drugs are medications that can be purchased without a prescription, typically used for minor ailments and symptoms.

• OTC drugs are available without a prescription from a healthcare professional

• They are typically used for minor ailments like headaches, colds, allergies, and pain relief

• Examples include ibuprofen, acetaminophen, antacids, and cough syrups

ADR effect stands for Adverse Drug Reaction effect, which refers to harmful or unintended reactions to medications.

• ADR effects can range from mild to severe and can occur with any medication.

• Common examples of ADR effects include nausea, dizziness, rash, and allergic reactions.

• Severe ADR effects may include organ damage, anaphylaxis, or even death.

• It is important for healthcare professionals to monitor for ADR effects and take appropriate action if they occur.

Management of medications involves prescribing, dispensing, administering, and monitoring medications to ensure safe and effective use.

• Prescribing the right medication based on patient's condition and medical history

• Dispensing the correct dosage and instructions for use

• Administering medications properly, considering factors like route of administration and timing

• Monitoring patient's response to medication and adjusting treatment as needed

• Educating patients on proper medicatio...read more

Innovator drugs are brand-name drugs developed by pharmaceutical companies, while generic drugs are copies of innovator drugs made after the patent expires.

• Innovator drugs are developed by pharmaceutical companies and have a brand name.

• Generic drugs are copies of innovator drugs and are usually cheaper.

• Generic drugs can only be made after the patent for the innovator drug expires.

• Both innovator and generic drugs must meet the same FDA standards for safety and effectiveness.

• Ex...read more

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease.

• Vaccines contain a weakened or inactive form of a specific pathogen to stimulate the immune system

• They train the immune system to recognize and fight off the pathogen in the future

• Vaccines have been crucial in preventing diseases such as polio, measles, and influenza

LScs stands for Lower Segment Cesarean Section, a surgical procedure to deliver a baby through an incision in the lower abdomen.

• LScs is commonly performed when a vaginal delivery is not possible or safe for the mother or baby.

• The procedure involves making an incision in the lower part of the uterus to deliver the baby.

• LScs may be done in cases of fetal distress, breech presentation, or maternal health concerns.

• Recovery from LScs typically takes longer than a vaginal delivery....read more

Plasma half life is the time it takes for the concentration of a drug in the plasma to decrease by half.

• Plasma half life is a pharmacokinetic parameter used to determine how long a drug stays in the body.

• It is important for dosing intervals and determining the duration of drug action.

• Short half life drugs require more frequent dosing compared to long half life drugs.

• For example, the half life of aspirin is around 3-4 hours, while the half life of ibuprofen is around 2-4 hours...read more

An anti-tuberculosis drug is a medication used to treat tuberculosis infections. An example is Isoniazid.

• Anti-tuberculosis drugs are used to treat tuberculosis infections caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria

• They work by inhibiting the growth and reproduction of the bacteria

• Examples of anti-tuberculosis drugs include Isoniazid, Rifampin, Pyrazinamide, Ethambutol

Examples of narcotics drugs include morphine, oxycodone, and fentanyl. Maintenance of narcotics drugs involves proper storage, documentation, and disposal procedures.

• Examples of narcotics drugs: morphine, oxycodone, fentanyl

• Store narcotics drugs securely to prevent theft or misuse

• Maintain accurate records of narcotics drug inventory and dispensing

• Follow proper disposal procedures for expired or unused narcotics drugs

An example of an anti-tuberculosis drug is Isoniazid. To maintain its registration, regular monitoring of safety and efficacy data is required.

• Example of an anti-tuberculosis drug: Isoniazid

• Regular monitoring of safety and efficacy data is essential for maintaining registration

Scheduled H drugs are prescription medications with high potential for abuse and addiction.

• Scheduled H drugs are classified under the Drugs and Cosmetics Act in India.

• These drugs require a prescription from a registered medical practitioner.

• Examples of Scheduled H drugs include morphine, methadone, and fentanyl.

Folic Acid is a synthetic form of folate, while L Methyl Folate is the active, natural form of folate that the body can readily use.

• Folic Acid is a synthetic form of folate, commonly found in supplements and fortified foods.

• L Methyl Folate is the active form of folate that is naturally present in foods like leafy greens, legumes, and citrus fruits.

• The body needs to convert Folic Acid into L Methyl Folate before it can be used, making L Methyl Folate more bioavailable and effe...read more

OTC medicine refers to over-the-counter medications that can be purchased without a prescription.

• OTC medicines are typically used to treat minor ailments and symptoms

• They are regulated by the FDA in the United States

• Examples include pain relievers like ibuprofen, allergy medications like loratadine, and cold remedies like cough syrup

Pharmacology is the study of how drugs interact with biological systems to produce a therapeutic effect.

• Pharmacology involves studying the effects of drugs on the body, including their mechanisms of action, side effects, and interactions.

• It also covers drug development, drug delivery systems, and drug metabolism.

• Pharmacology is essential for understanding how medications work and for ensuring their safe and effective use in patients.

• Examples of pharmacology in action include ...read more

Drug development phases include discovery, preclinical research, clinical research, regulatory review, and post-market surveillance.

• Discovery phase involves identifying potential drug candidates through research and testing.

• Preclinical research phase involves testing the drug candidate in laboratory and animal studies to assess safety and efficacy.

• Clinical research phase involves testing the drug candidate in human clinical trials to determine safety and effectiveness.

• Regulat...read more

Complications of Tablet Paracetamol include liver damage, allergic reactions, and overdose.

• Liver damage: Paracetamol can cause liver toxicity, especially when taken in high doses or for a prolonged period.

• Allergic reactions: Some individuals may experience allergic reactions such as skin rashes, itching, or swelling.

• Overdose: Taking an excessive amount of Paracetamol can lead to overdose, which can be life-threatening and may cause liver failure.